Lesson 4: Managing Your Investments

I.          Invest for the long run

For me there are four main tenants to a successful investment strategy:

1.       Long term investing

I am a growth/value oriented investor so I look for securities that I think will provide long term growth and good value.  I am a “buy and hold” style investor.  I tend to ignore the short term variations in the market and focus on sectors and segments where I think the long term value and growth will be and invest in those areas.  The practice of long term investing in areas that have performed well in the past helps to minimize costs (frequent buying and selling can quickly rack up significant costs for brokerage fees) and allows me to sleep well at night.  I am not worried that a risky investment I have made will suddenly crash and take my investment with it.

2.       Diversification

As I mentioned in lesson 3 mutual funds are an excellent way to get maximum diversification for the individual investor.  Diversification also helps me sleep well at night knowing that the odds of a mutual fund failing is much less than the odds of an individual corporation failing.  Mutual funds are my favorite investment vehicle and my preferred type of mutual fund is the ETF.  I like ETFs because they are easy to buy and they generally have relatively low fees.  Long term investing, which minimizes brokerage fees, and investing in funds with low fees are a couple of key components to successful investing.  Fees can significantly erode earnings on investments.

3.       Don’t try to time the market

Trying to time the market is simply gambling in my opinion and if you are going to gamble with your money the odds are better for you to play some game of chance in a casino.  Putting your money on a number on the roulette wheel, for example, with a 1 in 38 chance of winning has a much higher probability of success than trying to decide which stock or other security is going to go up or down in the market with millions of different choices available.  To me investing should be about finding a fund or other security that you think has long term value and investing in that security for the long term.  Gambling should be left to the casino.  It has no place, and should be kept out of the investment market in my opinion.

There are many different ways to “bet” on the market but I will mention only 2 here:

a.       Short selling

Short selling is the practice of borrowing securities for a certain length of time in anticipation that the price of the security will fall.  It is a form of gambling.  A couple of definitions will help you understand this form of gambling:  If you own a security (e.g. you own shares of Company X) you are considered to be “long” in that security as long as you own it.  If you have borrowed a security you are considered to be “short” in that security until you return it. 
The concept of short selling is that you sell the security you do not own today and then re-buy it later at a lower price and give it back to the owner while you keep the difference (less transaction fees) between the original sell price and the later purchase price.  For example:  you borrow (through a broker) 100 shares of Company XYZ and sell the shares today at the market price of $100 per share.  This “short sell” provides you with $10,000 of “borrowed” money.  Later (before the expiration of the “short sell” term) the market price of Company XYZ drops to $25 per share and you buy 100 shares at a cost of $2,500 and return the 100 shares of stock to the broker.  You have just made $7,500 (less brokerage fees) on the “short sale” of those stocks.  Short selling can generate good returns in a declining market, but can also result in huge losses if the price of the security increases between the time that the short sell is made and when the borrowed security is required to be returned.

b.      Options

There are two main types of options available on the market:

i.                     Option to Buy (call)

A call option gives the owner the right to buy a security (stock, commodity, etc.) at a certain price by a certain date. 

ii.                   Option to Sell (put)

A put option gives the owner the right to sell a security at a certain price by a certain date.

Options are often used as a way to “hedge” against market moves.  Call options can be used as a hedge against price increases and put options can be used as a hedge against price decreases. For example, a one year put option to sell 100 barrels of oil at $90 per barrel can be used to hedge against oil price declines in that year.  Conversely, a one year call option to buy 100 barrels of oil at $50 per barrel can be used as a hedge against oil price increases that year. Options can be allowed to expire without being exercised.  The reason for allowing an option to expire without exercising it is if the market conditions have changed so that the option is of no value.  In the example above the call option would have no value if the price of oil had dropped to $30 per barrel.  If options are allowed to expire you are out the cost of the option and options can be quite expensive depending upon when and how they are purchased. Options can be bought and sold over and over again throughout their life similar to bonds.  Options can also be held “long” or “short”.  Short selling options that then become worthless can result in huge losses.

Rather than partake in any of the above market timing techniques I use the “dollar-cost averaging” technique for my investing.  Dollar cost averaging is the practice of regularly investing a consistent dollar amount regardless of the market conditions.  The practice of regularly investing a consistent dollar amount naturally results in more securities being purchased during market down turns and less securities being purchased during market up swings.  It also naturally rebalances your portfolio over time toward lower cost securities because proportionately more of the lower cost securities are purchased than the higher cost securities.  In this way dollar cost averaging can provide a better return than the practice of regularly buying a set number of shares.

4.       Don’t take the advice of “experts”

Most “experts” have a profit motive for their recommendations so their guidance, in my opinion, is more geared towards helping themselves than helping you.  For this reason I chose to make my own investment decisions and manage my own money rather than seek the advice of a portfolio manager (this practice also avoids portfolio advisor/manager fees).  I also tend to focus on index funds rather than managed funds because the fees are less and I don’t have much confidence that the fund manager will be able to outperform the market, especially with a large fund (I tend to focus on large funds rather than small funds to reduce risk as a long term investor) so I don’t see the increased fees of the managed fund as justified.

II.        Track your investments

It is important to track your investments regularly, but as a long term investor it is wise not to track them too closely.  Watching the daily, hourly or minute-by-minute ups and downs of the market and your portfolio may encourage you to buy or sell frequently due to fear, anxiety or a desire to time the market.  Statistics have proven that long term investors who stay in the market through its ups and downs have better returns over the long run than do “day traders” or those who try to time the market.  This is mostly due to lower costs associated with long term investing (less brokerage fees) and the virtual impossibility of getting market timing right consistently over time.  I recommend reviewing your investments monthly to track progress against your goals but only make changes to investment direction (what you are investing in) or amount on an annual basis (semi-annual at most).

III.      Calculate your Personal Rate of Return (PRR)

To me one of the most exciting things about investing is watching my investments grow.  An important part of watching those investments grow is to calculate my annual personal rate of return so I can compare the growth rate of my portfolio to the market or other indices.  Calculating your annual personal rate of return is very easy; it is the difference in the value of your portfolio at the end of the year compared to the value of your portfolio at the beginning of the year divided by the value of your portfolio at the beginning of the year, expressed as a percentage:

PRR = (Y-X)/X*100%

X = the value of your portfolio at the beginning of the year

Y = the value of your portfolio at the end of the year

PRR is my primary goal for investing.  I have a long term goal for my PRR and I calculate my PRR every year to see how I have done against my goal that year.  I also calculate my 5 year, 10 year and cumulative average PRR to see how my PRR is trending with time against my goal.  My investment decisions are primarily geared toward achieving my long term PRR goal.

IV.      Reinvest your earnings

Dividends and interest are the two primary sources of earnings from investments in stocks, bonds and money-market securities.  Earnings are normally automatically reinvested in 401Ks, IRAs and other company sponsored investment plans.  However, for investments held in brokerage accounts earnings are not normally automatically reinvested.  For brokerage accounts, and most ETFs or mutual funds held outside of 401Ks or IRAs, you must sign up for their Dividend Re-Investment Program (DRIP) if you want your earnings to be automatically reinvested.  One of the simplest and easiest ways to increase your PRR is to ensure that all of your earnings are automatically reinvested.  The regular reinvestment of earnings is another source of dollar-cost averaging for your portfolio. 

V.        Rebalance as necessary

When you are young and starting your portfolio your investment objective should be primarily growth.  As you get older and closer to retirement your investment objective should slowly shift toward capital preservation and income.  Rebalancing your portfolio to meet your changing objectives should, in my opinion, not be done more often than once a year.  For me, rebalancing involves changing the direction of future investments.  As a “buy and hold” investor I do not sell my existing assets to rebalance my portfolio.  When I was young I invested virtually all of my money in stock funds.  Now that I am closer to retirement I am investing more of my money in bond and money-market funds, but I have not sold the stock funds that I purchased when I was young.  Over the long run stocks have always provided a better return than bonds or money-market securities so it is important to me to keep invested in stocks even though I am older.

VI.      Avoid common pitfalls

In my experience the six most common pitfalls that derail the best laid investment plans are:

1.       Failure to get started – Most people say they want to invest, but few actually do.  Start now!  If you don’t think you know how ask for help from me or someone else who knows about investing.  It is really much easier than you think.

2.       Failure to invest regularly – It is easy to allow other “wants” or “needs” to consume the money that could be used for investing.  Use the strategies discussed in lesson 1 to develop and stick to a budget that allows for regularly investing in yourself first (dollar-cost averaging).

3.       Failure to stay invested – Everyone knows that selling assets is one way to not stay invested.  Fewer recognize that borrowing against assets is another way to not stay invested.  Borrowing against assets can reduce the return on the asset to below zero, which is worse than selling the asset.  There are many reasons for selling assets or borrowing against them and they should all be avoided.  Make “buy and hold” your motto for investment.

4.       Trying to time the market – Getting out when you think the market is going down, buying in when you think the market is going up, or using the methods discussed in Section I.3 above to try and bet on the market have all been proven to be less effective in the long run than having a simple investment program that keeps you in the market and investing regularly.  My recommendation:  buy and hold and use dollar-cost averaging.

5.       Failure to reinvest earnings – Don’t be tempted to use the earning for other purposes.  Take advantage of automatic reinvestment programs offered by most funds and brokerages to make your earnings work for you.

6.       Failure to track and rebalance your portfolio – They say “what you fail to track you fail to improve on”.  You should use a tracking spreadsheet or some other tool to monitor your portfolio and set targets/goals for yourself.  If you don’t know how to set up a tracking spreadsheet, ask me or someone else who knows about such things for help.

Lesson 3: Understanding the Mutual Fund

I.        Introduction
A mutual fund is a company that is in the business of making investments (an investment company).  Purchasing shares of a mutual fund is comparable to buying stock in a corporation.  When you invest in a mutual fund you are buying shares of the investment company just like buying stock in a corporation.  Mutual funds use the money invested in them by shareholders to purchase securities (stocks, bonds, money-market instruments, etc.) to meet the investment objectives established in the fund’s prospectus (a document published by the fund and updated on a routine basis disclosing detailed information about the fund).  The value of the mutual fund is determined by the value of the underlying securities it holds in its investment portfolio.  The share price of a mutual fund is called the Net Asset Value or NAV.  The NAV of a fund is normally calculated at the end of each business day by adding the day’s closing value of all of it securities and cash together, subtracting any liabilities and then dividing that resulting value by the number of shares outstanding that day. 

Before investing in any mutual fund it is important to read the fund’s prospectus as it contains information about the fund’s investment objectives, risks, management, historical performance, fees, etc.  You should always fully understand what you are investing in before you buy and a mutual fund prospectus is the source for the fundamental information you need to know about the fund before you invest in it.  Mutual funds also produce quarterly reports to shareholders that provide details about current performance and current assets held by the funds.  The fund, brokers, brokerages and other investment publications and rating agencies will also provide this information (generally for free) to non-shareholders.

One of the main advantages of investing in mutual funds over buying individual securities is leveraged diversification.  Mutual funds normally invest in many different securities (often over 100 different securities in a single fund).  Buying shares of the fund provides you with exposure to (although not direct ownership in) all of the underlying securities held by the fund.  Therefore, as an individual investor with limited funds you can get significantly more diversification buying shares of a mutual fund than you can buying individual securities.  For example, an investment in a mutual fund holding 100 blue chip company stocks will give you exposure to all 100 of those companies.  To buy individual shares in each of those 100 blue chip company would cost a significant amount of money.  If, for instance, each of those blue chip company stocks cost $50 per share then to buy only 1 share of all 100 different companies would cost $5,000.  To buy 10 shares of all 100 companies would cost $50,000!  On the other hand, most mutual funds have a minimum investment requirement of around $1,000 (some are $500 or less).  Therefore, for as little as $500-$1,000 you could get the same amount of diversification as the $5,000 or $50,000 portfolio.

The main advantage of diversification is the spreading of risk.  The risk of any single company failing or going out of business is significantly higher than 100 companies failing.  By investing in mutual funds you are spreading your risk across all of the securities held by the fund.  Further, by investing in several different mutual funds that are focused in different sectors of the economy (financial, industrial, retail, etc.) you can further spread your risk across many different sectors of the economy.  To get this same level of diversification buying individual securities would be impossible to all but the wealthiest individuals.

Another advantage of mutual funds is the economy of scale (cost savings associated with operating a large organization).  Investment companies work hard to hire and retain experienced, talented personnel to oversee their holdings and can spread the cost of this talent over a large asset pool.  Additionally, the fund managers, unlike most individual investors, are dedicated full-time to portfolio management and will, within the limits set by the fund’s investment objectives, quickly make the changes necessary to protect the fund from losses and generate the highest return for the investor.  However, one down side to the economy of scale is that if a fund grows too large it can become a prisoner to its size and not be able to move as quickly to adjust to changing economic conditions.  For example, a fund that has $50 million in assets can easily move a large percentage of its assets from one security to another, if it sees an advantage in doing so, without significantly affecting the securities being bought or sold.  However, a fund that has $50 billion in assets cannot easily move large percentages of its assets without potentially affecting the very market conditions it is trying to take advantage of.

II.        Types of Mutual Funds
There are thousands of different mutual funds available in the U.S. with hundreds of different investment objectives.  However, all of these funds fall into three different types as defined by the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC):

1.       Open-end Funds

The most common type of Investment Company (mutual fund) is the open-end fund.  An open-end fund can issue new shares without limit.  An open-end fund will also buy back shares without limit.  An open-end fund’s share price (NAV) changes daily based on the value of the securities it owns and the number of shares outstanding.  When you buy shares in an open-end fund you receive new, previously unissued stock.  Your investment increases the number of shares outstanding for the fund.  When you sell share of an open-end fund the shares are purchased by the fund and cancelled thus reducing the number of shares outstanding for the fund.  Open-end fund shares are bought and sold only once a day, at the end of the business day after the NAV for the fund is calculated.  Because of the fluid nature of the open-end fund the SEC requires all open-end funds to publish a new prospectus at least every 16 months. 

2.        Close-end Funds

Close-end funds issue a specific number of shares all at once in their initial public offering.  After the initial public offering the shares are traded on stock exchanges and the price moves up and down as determined by the market.  If demand for the shares is high the price will rise while if demand for the shares is low the price will drop.  When you buy shares of a close-end fund (after the initial public offering) you are buying them from other investors and not from the mutual fund.  When you sell shares of a close-end fund you sell them to other investors and not to the mutual fund.  Therefore, the share price of a close-end fund can change independently from its NAV.  If demand for the close-end fund is high its shares can sell at a significant premium to the fund’s NAV.  Conversely, if demand for the close-end fund is low its shares can sell at a significant discount to the fund’s NAV.

3.       Unit Investment Trusts (UITs)

UITs are like close-end funds in that they too issue a specific number of shares all at one time in an initial public offering. However, unlike close-end funds UITs are normally set up as an unmanaged fund for a specific purpose with a limited life span. UITs are also like open-end funds in that investors can redeem shares directly with the fund at any time.  Upon termination of the trust all outstanding shares are redeemed by the fund and the fund is closed.  Some UITs may allow investors to sell their shares on the open market.  UITs do not have a professional investment manager. The portfolio of securities held by the UIT is set by the creators of the trust and that portfolio remains unchanged throughout the life of the fund.

III.        Categories of Mutual Funds
The three different types of mutual funds discussed in Section II above can further be categorized based on the investment objectives or focus of the fund.  There are many different ways to categorizes mutual funds.  However, most funds can be broadly organized into three major categories based on the type of securities the fund focuses on:

1.        Stock Funds

As the name implies stock (or equity) funds invest in the common stock of corporations.  There is a myriad of different stock funds available in the U.S.  It is important to read a stock fund’s prospectus in order to understand what types of stocks the fund invests in.  The fund may invest in only U.S. corporations (domestic fund) or it may only invest in international corporations (foreign fund) or it may invest in both domestic and foreign corporations (global fund).  It may focus on a specific industry or sector, or it may be more broadly market based.  Stock funds are often subcategorized into a 3x3 matrix according to two primary factors: 

a.       The size of corporation (market capitalization or “cap” for short) the fund focuses on.  A corporation's “cap” is calculated by multiplying the number of shares it has on the market by the price per share.  The three common stock fund “cap” subcategories are small-cap, mid-cap, and large-cap.  As market valuations are always fluctuating the exact definition of what size a corporation fits into these three subcategories is always a bit nebulous, but for current market conditions large-cap stocks generally have market capitalizations of at least $10 billion, small-cap stocks have market capitalizations below $2 billion, and mid-cap stocks fit somewhere in between.  A fourth category, micro-cap, is also often used to identify corporations with a market capitalization of less than $300 million.

b.      The investment style the fund employs in picking its stocks.  The three investment styles are growth, value, and blend.  Growth funds seek to invest in stocks of fast-growing companies. Value funds seek to invest in stocks that appear to the fund manager to be undervalued (cheaply priced). Blend funds try to hit a middle ground between the other two styles by investing for both growth and value.

Often when reading reviews or reports on a stock fund you will see the following 3x3 matrix used to identify the fund’s subcategory:

	Large-cap	Mid-cap	Small-cap
Growth	X
Blend
Value

This example indicates that the fund under review is a large-cap growth fund.

2.        Bond Funds

Again, as the name implies bond funds invest in bonds or other fixed income or debt securities. Bond funds are also often subcategorized according to two primary factors:

a.       The credit rating or type of bonds targeted for purchase by the fund (e.g. high-yield or junk bonds, investment-grade corporate bonds, government bonds or municipal bonds).

b.      The maturity of the bonds held (short-, intermediate- or long-term).  Bond funds tend to have a target maturity range (such as five to ten years) that they strive to stay within.  Therefore, once established, a bond fund must constantly sell older bonds as they mature out of the target range and buy new bonds in order to stay in the target maturity range. Thus, most bond funds will never "mature" or expire like a specific bond would.

As with stock funds, bond funds may be domestic, global, or international funds depending on where in the world they focus their bond purchases.

3.        Money market Funds

Most money market funds invest primarily in short term IOUs issued by banks and the nation’s strongest, most creditworthy corporations.  Others may invest in the short-term bonds of the U.S. government or state and local governments.  There focus is always on low-risk capital preservation with high liquidity.  These funds are attractive to those who are seeking marginally better returns on their cash than what they would get from a normal bank or credit union account.

IV.        Management style

The different categorizes of Mutual funds can further be classified according to their management style:

1.        Passively Managed

Also known as “fully invested” or “index” funds.  A passively managed fund will generally be at least 80% invested in the securities of the index, sector or other investment vehicle it is following regardless of what is happening to the underlying securities.  Index funds arrange their portfolio of securities to match, as closely as possible, a market index such as the S&P 500 (a broad based index of 500 large U.S. corporations chosen by the Standard & Poor’s selection committee). Passively managed funds only buy or sell securities as needed to maintain the composition of the fund’s portfolio with the composition of the selected index or other target. This passive management style generally results in a passively managed fund having lower management and other fees than actively managed funds.

2.        Actively Managed

Also known as “fully managed” funds, an actively managed fund can exercise more discretion in buying and selling assets, within the limits set in the fund prospectus, to try to protect the fund from losses and maximize returns.  As mentioned above this active management style generally results in higher management and other fees which the investor hopes is more than off-set by better returns from the managed fund relative to the index fund.

V.        Fees

One of the main disadvantages to investing in mutual funds as compared to investing in individual securities is the myriad of fees that can be associated with buying, selling and holding mutual fund shares.  Again, it is important to carefully read a fund’s prospectus before investing to understand the types of fees associated with that fund.

1.         Sales fee (front-end load)

Some funds charge a sales fee or commission on shares purchased.  This fee is often adjusted up or down depending upon the number of shares purchased.  Generally the more share purchased, the lower the fee.

2.        Redemption fee (back-end load)

Some funds charge a redemption fee when shares are sold.  Often the redemption fee is reduced or eliminated the longer the shares are held.

3.        12b-1 fee

Paragraph 12b-1 of the SEC mutual fund rules allows funds to charge up to 1.25% annually to cover expenses related to advertising and other services provided by the fund.  Not all funds charge this fee so it is important to check the fund prospectus to see if this fee is imposed by a fund you are interested in.

4.        Operating Expenses (Management fee)

Expenses related to operating and managing the fund are paid directly out of the fund’s assets.  Management fees can vary greatly from fund to fund and can be listed directly in the fund’s prospectus, or included in the expense ratio.

5.        Other fees

There is a litany of other fees potentially charged by mutual funds.  Some examples include exit fees, exchange fees, automatic reinvestment fees, trustee fees, custody fees, fund administration fees, fund accounting fees, professional service fees, registration fees, etc.

VI.        Electronically Traded Funds (ETFs)

ETFs are a relatively new class of Investment Company that combines characteristics of both close-end and open-end funds. Like close-end funds ETFs are traded throughout the day on stock exchanges at prices that may be more or less than the NAV of the ETF assets.  Like open-end funds ETF shares can often be bought or sold at the end of each trading day at NAV.    ETFs traditionally have been index funds, but in 2008 the SEC began authorizing the creation of actively managed ETFs.  ETFs tend to have low fees due to their electronic format and propensity to be passively managed.

Lesson 2: Understanding the 3 Main Investment Vehicles

I.                    Stocks

a.       Common Stock – Corporations are a form of business that offer ownership in the company to the general public through the issuance of stock.  A company “goes public” by organizing itself as a corporation (in accordance with the business laws of the country in which it operates) and issuing shares of stock on a stock exchange through an Initial Public Offering (IPO).  The largest stock exchange in the U.S. is the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) located on Wall Street in New York City.  All of the major U.S. corporations, along with many major foreign corporations, list their stock on the NYSE.  This stock exchange is so famous that it has become synonymous with the words “Wall Street”.  Stock (ownership) in a corporation is purchased through buying shares of the company’s stock through traders on the stock exchange where the company is listed.  The money raised by issuing shares of stock can be used by the corporation to fund its operations or pay its obligations.  Once issued, the price per share of a company’s stock rises and falls based on many things including;  market conditions, number of company shares on the market, competition, public opinion, the company’s financial condition, etc…  Corporations are legal entities that are separate from their owners.  Corporations are owned by their shareholders.  However, corporations can own property, incur debt, sue and be sued separate from the owners.  This unique quality of a corporation to operate independent of the owners (shareholders) protects the owners from damages related to issues such as legal liability and the solvency of the corporation.  If the corporation is found culpable in a legal battle, or is unable to pay its debts or other obligations the shareholders are not held liable.  The only loss the shareholders incur related to legal obligations of the corporation, or if a corporation goes bankrupt or out of business, is the loss of the value of the stock held by the shareholders. 

All of a corporation’s shares that have the same rights are known as “common stock”.  Ownership of common stock provides you with certain rights in relation to the operation of the corporation such as; 

1.       ownership of a nonredeemable security (share of company stock)

2.       the right to offer your nonredeemable security (company stock) for sale at any time and for any price

3.       the right to limited liability (as discussed in the paragraph above)

4.       the right to receive a copy of the company’s annual report

5.       the right to attend shareholder meetings

6.       the right to vote to elect the company’s board of directors, and to vote on other matters that come before the board of directors (the number of votes is equal to the number of shares of common stock owned)

7.       the right to examine some of the company’s financial and other records

8.       the right to receive a share of any dividends declared by the company’s board of directors

9.       the right to share in the assets of the company upon dissolution or liquidation

b.      Preferred Stock – Preferred stock can be thought of as a hybrid between common stock and corporate bonds.  They are like bonds in that the return on the investment is fixed and usually limited.  They are like common stock in that they do not mature (expire) and the holder is an owner not a creditor.  They are also in the middle with regard to access to corporate assets upon dissolution or liquidation.  In general bond holders receive first right to corporate assets upon dissolution or liquidation, preferred stock holders receive second right to the assets and common stock holders receive third right.  Preferred stock holders also receive preferential right to corporate dividends over the common stock holders.  However, they rank behind corporate bonds with respect to dividends because the corporation has a legal requirement to pay interest on bonds whereas there is no such legal requirement to pay dividends to preferred stock holders.  The actual rights of the preferred stock holder are found in the company’s charter.  Preferred stock is issued in many different forms including cumulative¹, participating², redeemable³ and convertible⁴.  Because the return on preferred stock is limited to that declared when the stock is issued the growth possibilities are generally not as good as with common stock.  Also, the return on preferred stock is normally tied to a percentage of the dividend declared on the stock and as such the return could be deferred, or eliminated if the board of directors defers dividends or defaults on the dividend.  Preferred stock holders normally cannot vote in company elections unless the dividends are in default.

II.                  Bonds

a.       A bond is formal evidence of a debt owed.  Bonds are issued by corporations, federal, state and local governments as a means to finance certain activities and/or projects or to fund ongoing operations.  When a corporation or government issues a bond they are offering the holder of the bond a promise to be paid a specific amount of interest at specific intervals and for a specific duration (term or maturity).  When the bond matures (expires or finishes it term) the corporation or government promises to repay the bond holder the amount of money originally paid for the bond (the principle). 

b.      As an investment bonds are fairly easy to understand because generally the maturity (duration), interest rate, and interest payment schedule are published with the bond so it is very clear what you are buying.  However, there are a vast variety of different types of bonds so understanding what type you are buying can get a bit confusing.  For example; bearable bond⁵, callable bond⁶, convertible debenture⁷, discount bond⁸, first mortgage bond⁹, registered bond¹⁰ and serial bond¹¹ are a few of the different types of bonds available on the market. 

c.       In general the interest rate paid on a bond is proportional to the risk associated with the issuer of the bond.  The U.S. Treasury bill (T-bill) is considered the safest and most marketable security in the world and therefore merits the lowest interest rate.  The U.S. Treasury also issues savings bonds, Treasury bonds and Treasury notes that all merit ultra-low interest rates because they are considered to be virtually “risk free” as they are backed by the full faith and security of the U.S. Federal government.  The U.S. Federal government has never defaulted on payment of its bond obligations.  Bonds issued by state and local governments (municipal bonds) are also considered low risk (albeit not zero risk as there have been examples of school districts, cities and even states defaulting on their bonds). The risk associated with corporate bonds varies widely based on the credit rating of the company issuing the bonds.   Federal, municipal and corporate bonds are rated by many domestic and international rating agencies.  The three major U.S. rating agencies are:  Moody’s¹², Standard & Poor’s (S&P)¹³ and Fitch Group¹⁴.  As stated before the U.S. T-bill is considered the safest and most marketable security in the world and as such the U.S. Federal government has historically held the highest possible rating by all three major U.S. rating agencies (Aaa by Moody’s, AAA by S&P and Fitch).  However, on August 5, 2011 the S&P rocked the domestic and international investment markets by downgrading the U.S. Federal government from AAA (outstanding) rating to AA+ (excellent) rating.  Moody’s and Fitch did not downgrade the government but each did issue a negative outlook in 2011 for the government retaining the highest rating.  Fitch has since removed its negative outlook in March of 2014. 

d.      In general the amount of interest a government or corporation must offer in order to attract buyers to their bonds increases as their credit rating decreases.  Bonds with a rating of “BB” by S&P and Fitch, or “Ba” by Moody’s are often referred to as “junk” or “high-yield” bonds as they are considered high risk, speculative or below investment grade and therefore carry much higher interest rates (yields) than bonds from issuers with higher credit ratings.  Bond prices generally fluctuate inversely with market interest rates (i.e. when interest rates rise bond prices fall and when interest rates fall bond prices rise)¹⁵.  Municipal bonds have the added advantage of paying interest that is normally free from federal taxes.

III.                Cash

a.       Savings accounts (passbook accounts), Certificates of Deposit (CDs) and interest bearing checking accounts are the primary examples of “cash” investments.  The interest paid on such “cash” accounts are, in general, lower than the other types of investment vehicles described above and for the past several years have been at near zero (below zero when adjusted for inflation).  However, in terms of security, as long as the money is placed in an institution that is insured then the principle is guaranteed up to the limit of the insurance on the account.  Also, in terms of liquidity, or ease of access to the funds, cash accounts are considered the most liquid investment because funds can be withdrawn at any time, normally without penalty (except in the case of early withdrawal from a CD).  It is always a good idea to have a certain amount of cash on hand to cover emergency needs, but in the current ultra-low interest environment on cash accounts it is advisable to keep cash to a minimum.

IV.                Risk vs return

a.       The primary risk associated with ownership of corporate common stock is the decrease in stock price.  If you must sell your shares and the per share price of the stock is less than when you bought the shares you will suffer a loss on the sale.

b.      In general, the larger the potential return on an investment, the higher the risk.  Below is a table that compares the general risk vs return of the three main investment vehicles discussed in this lesson:

Investment Vehicle	Risk	Return
Stock	High	High
Bond	Low/high (depending on type of bond)	Low/High (depending on type of bond)
Cash	Low	Low

Foot Notes

¹ Past, omitted dividends are paid to preferred shareholders, then to common shareholders.

² The stock holder has the right to the normal preferred dividend rate plus a bonus dividend based on a predetermined condition.

³ The issuer of the stock can buy it back and retire it.

⁴ The stock holder has the option, past a certain date, to convert the shares into a number of common shares.

⁵ A bond on which the owner’s name is not registered with the issuer.

⁶ Also known as a redeemable bond, the issuer can redeem this bond before it reaches maturity. Usually, the bond owner is paid a premium when the bond is called.

⁷ A company-issued loan that the bond holder, or sometimes the issuer, can convert into stock. This allows for a lower interest rate paid by the issuer.

⁸ A bond issued, or currently trading in the secondary market, for less than its par/face value.

⁹ A bond backed by real property or real estate owned by the issuer.

¹⁰ The company records (registers) the bond owner’s name and contact information in order to pay the correct person.

¹¹ Multiple bonds issued at the same time and quoted by their yield that mature at regular intervals until all the bonds have matured.

¹² This corporation provides credit ratings, research, tools, and analysis for transparent and integrated financial markets. It is the parent company of Moody’s Investors Service (credit ratings and research on debt instruments and securities) and Moody’s Analytics (software, advisory services, and research on credit and economic analysis and financial risk management).

¹³ This rating service provides an opinion on the general creditworthiness of an obligor.

¹⁴ This service provides financial information through Fitch Ratings (credit ratings and research), Fitch Solutions (credit market data, analytical tools, and risk services), Fitch Learning (learning and development solutions for the global financial services industry), and Business Monitor International (country risk and industry analysis specializing in emerging and frontier markets).

¹⁵ If interest rates drop (to 5% for example), higher return rates (such as 9%) are more attractive. Therefore, more people buy those bonds, increasing the price until the yield matches the dominant interest rate (5%). If interest rates increase (to 9%), the lower return rates (5%) become less attractive, forcing the bond prices to decrease to attract demand and increase the yield.

Lesson 1: Getting Started

I.                    Understand where your money is currently going

a.       Keep all receipts – Use a filing cabinet, file box, file folder, shoe box or any other appropriate means to file receipts.  Ask for a receipt of every transaction, even if it is a cash transaction, and file all receipts for later use.  All receipts should be checked against your bank/credit card records to ensure they have been recorded correctly (yes, mistakes are still made in recording transactions, even in this “electronic age”) and to also ensure that no unauthorized transactions are occurring.

b.      Avoid using cash – This is one of the little known ways to better track your spending and reduce unnecessary spending.  Most people withdraw cash from a bank in “chunks” of $20, $50, $100 or more and then spend it on miscellaneous items with little or no tracking of what it is spent on.  At the end of the day, week, month or whatever all of their cash has been spent and they have virtually no idea what it was spent on.  Using a check or credit card provides a written or electronic record of the expenditure that is much easier to categorize and track.  Minimizing the use of cash is the first “secret” to good money management.

c.       Record everything you spend money on every day – There are many software packages available as freeware, shareware or for purchase online or in stores that can be used to record your purchases (e.g. Microsoft Money).  It is important to record all purchases, even seemingly small or insignificant ones, to get a full picture of where your money is currently going.  I use an online banking/brokerage account where all of my checks and credit card transactions are recorded and I cross-check all transactions against my receipts to track my spending and to ensure that no unauthorized activity is occurring in my accounts.  If you don’t have software, or don’t want to avail yourself of it, you can always use the “old fashioned” method of writing everything down in a notebook or ledger book.

d.      Categorize your spending – Again, most software for recording expenditures includes a feature for categorizing your spending.  If you are using a notebook or ledger make each page a separate category by writing the category at the top of the page and recording only the expenses for that category on that page.  My online banking/brokerage account allows categorization of expenditures and I use this feature to help understand what I am spending my money on.  It is important that you develop sufficient categories that you have a place to record most of your expenditures.  Having just a few categories can result in a large percentage of your spending going into the “miscellaneous” category which gives you no useful information on where your money went.  Avoid using a “miscellaneous” category.  If you find that many of your expenditures don’t fit easily into one of your existing categories, create another category.  Appendix A contains a list of the categories I use for tracking my expenditures.  The more categories and subcategories you have the more likely it is that you will be able to find a category for each expenditure.  However, there is obviously an upper limit to the number of categories to use because you don’t want every expenditure to be its own category.

II.                  Recognize areas where you can reduce or eliminate spending (i.e. differentiate a “want” from a “need”)

a.       What is the minimum you need to function – At the most basic level there are only four things that every human needs:  air, water, food, and shelter.  Obviously none of us live, or want to live, at that most basic level but keeping that level in mind helps put other “needs” in perspective.  For example, unless you live in a nudist colony most of us “need” some form of clothing, but do we need the latest designer clothing from the high end boutiques?  The answer to that question for most of us is definitely no.  However, for those who design, market, model or sell the high end clothing the answer may be yes.  Each of us is an individual with different circumstances so only you can determine what the minimum you need to function is. 

b.      What spending can you eliminate – The second “secret” to good money management is to review your daily, monthly and annual expenditures, as recorded and categorized in Sections I.c. and I.d. above, with a critical eye to determine which expenses can be reduced and which can be eliminated.  It is important to repeat this critical review of expenses regularly as excessive and/or unneeded expenses have a tendency to creep back into your spending if you don’t constantly weed them out.  I categorize my expenses on a weekly basis and review them for changes on a monthly basis.  I recommend categorizing your expenses at least monthly and reviewing them for changes at least annually.

c.       Allow for “needed” spending changes but avoid “unneeded” spending changes – Throughout our lives there are many “needed” spending changes that occur.  For example as a young adult educational expenses are generally an important “needed” expense to set the person up for success in the future.  Once the person finishes school their educational expenses should decrease dramatically while other expenses like relocating for a job, getting married, buying a house, etc. will increase.  It is important to recognize that our “needed” spending changes with time but keep a critical eye open for the “unneeded” spending that always tends to creep in if we don’t continue to monitor and control our spending.

d.      Set goals for achieving certain purchases (deferred gratification) – The third, and possibly the hardest to follow, “secret” to good money management is deferred gratification.  If you have something you want, but you can’t currently afford it set it as a “prize” or a “reward” to get for yourself at some future time when you have reached a predetermined wealth, income or other target or goal.  Don’t pay for things on credit that you can’t afford.  Credit expense (interest paid by you to others) is a significant drag on wealth building and can derail the best laid plans.

e.      Avoid impulse buying – Impulse buying is one of the leading causes for “unneeded” spending.  To help avoid impulse buying I recommend that you write a shopping list before you go shopping and purchase only what you have written on the list.  Avoid the marketing gimmicks and sales/peer/child/significant-other/etc. pressure by sticking to a shopping list.  This discipline is one of the best tricks to staying on a budget.

III.                Develop a budget

a.       Keep it simple – Developing and sticking to a budget for many people are as difficult as developing and sticking to a diet.  Many people try but few succeed.  I don’t have a good answer for the diet issue, but for the budget issue my answer is simple:  “spend less than you earn!”  That is the fourth “secret” to good money management.  The secret for success in every budget lies on the spending side.  Most of us can’t control how much we make, but we all can control how much we spend.  Throughout my life, no matter how much my income has been, I have always lived on less than I have earned.  My motto is “It isn’t how much you earn; it is how much you spend that determines how much wealth you will have at the end of the day.”  If you want a simple budget write something like this:  “This month I will not spend more than 75% of my income.”

b.      Pay yourself first – Always put money away for you.  Once you are spending less than you earn put that extra money to use earning you money.  Open a brokerage account and start investing that money.  Of course, part of paying yourself is also setting aside money for those special “prizes” and “rewards” you have chosen for hitting your financial milestones, targets and goals.  Little rewards along the way will help you mark progress and stay motivated to continue the journey.

c.       Adjust your budget to pay yourself more – As your spending decreases and your income increases adjust your budget to say something more like this:  “This month I will not spend more than 50% of my income”.  Make it a goal to decrease your spend to income ratio month over month and year over year.

IV.                Open an online brokerage account

a.       There are several online brokerages available (e.g. E*Trade, Scottrade, TradeKing).  I have used E*Trade (etrade.com) for many years now and I have been very pleased with their low fees, ease of use and great customer service.  Setting up an account is simple and can be done almost completely online.  One of the many advantages of online brokerage accounts is their low brokerage fees.  For example with E*Trade you pay $9.99 or less (some trades are free) for each purchase regardless of the size of the purchase.

V.                  Start investing

a.       Put your money to use – Take that money you are paying yourself from Section III.b. above and start buying securities with it.  The fifth “secret” to good money management is to get started.  The younger you are when you get started and the more you invest consistently the more you will have at the end of the day.  In Lesson 2 I will review the three main investment vehicles and help you understand how each one can be used to help you build wealth.

Appendix A
A sample list of expenditure categories

Auto	Create a subcategory for Auto
	·  Gasoline
	·  Loan
	·  Miscellaneous
	·  Parking
	·  Service
Bank Fees	Create a subcategory for Bank Fees
	·  Overdraft Fee
	·  Service Fee
Becky's Living Expense	Create a subcategory for Becky's Living Expense
Cash Withdrawal	Create a subcategory for Cash Withdrawal
Charity	Create a subcategory for Charity
	·  Trusts
Childcare	Create a subcategory for Childcare
Clothing	Create a subcategory for Clothing
	·  Casual
	·  Shoes
	·  Work
Crafts	Create a subcategory for Crafts
Credit Card Pymt	Create a subcategory for Credit Card Pymt
	·  Interest
	·  Late Fees
Delivery	Create a subcategory for Delivery
	·  Air
	·  Ground
	·  US Postal Service
Education	Create a subcategory for Education
	·  Board
	·  Books
	·  Fees
	·  Tuition
Exchange Fee	Create a subcategory for Exchange Fee
Food	Create a subcategory for Food
	·  Dining Out
	·  Groceries
Gifts	Create a subcategory for Gifts
	·  Anniversary
	·  Birthday
	·  Holiday
Healthcare	Create a subcategory for Healthcare
HOA fees	Create a subcategory for HOA fees
Home Owners Insurance	Create a subcategory for Home Owners Insurance
Home security	Create a subcategory for Home security
House Purchase	Create a subcategory for House Purchase
Household	Create a subcategory for Household
	·  Furnishings
	·  Homeowner Fees
	·  House Cleaning
	·  Laundry Services
	·  Maintenance
	·  Yard Service
Insurance	Create a subcategory for Insurance
	·  Auto
	·  Health
	·  Home/Rent
	·  Life
Investment Expense	Create a subcategory for Investment Expense
James' Living Expense	Create a subcategory for James' Living Expense
Job Expenses	Create a subcategory for Job Expenses
	·  Air
	·  Auto/Taxi
	·  Dining Out
	·  Entertaining
	·  Gifts
	·  Lodging
Leisure	Create a subcategory for Leisure
	·  Books/Mag/News
	·  CDs
	·  Club/Gym Fees
	·  Cultural Events
	·  Entertaining
	·  Membership Fees
	·  Miscellaneous
	·  Movies
	·  Sporting Goods
	·  Subscriptions
	·  Toys/Games
	·  Video Rental
LoanPymtsTaxed	Create a subcategory for LoanPymtsTaxed
	·  Mortgage Interest
	·  Student Loan Interest
LoanPymtsUntaxed	Create a subcategory for LoanPymtsUntaxed
	·  Auto
	·  Auto Interest
	·  Late Fees
	·  Miscellaneous
	·  Mortgage
	·  Student Loan
Medical	Create a subcategory for Medical
	·  Dental
	·  Doctor
	·  Eye care
	·  Hospital Fees
	·  Miscellaneous
	·  Prescriptions
Miscellaneous	Create a subcategory for Miscellaneous
Misty's Living Expense	Create a subcategory for Misty's Living Expense
Office Supplies	Create a subcategory for Office Supplies
Personal Care	Create a subcategory for Personal Care
	·  Barber
	·  Spa/Salon
	·  Toiletries
Pet Care	Create a subcategory for Pet Care
	·  Food
	·  Grooming
	·  Supplies
	·  Veterinarian
Rental Vehicle	Create a subcategory for Rental Vehicle
Savings	Create a subcategory for Savings
	·  Christmas
	·  Education
	·  Home
	·  Miscellaneous
School Supplies	Create a subcategory for School Supplies
Tax Related	Create a subcategory for Tax Related
	·  Child Support
	·  Federal Income Tax
	·  Federal Income Tax Prev Year
	·  Home Improvement
	·  Home Loan
	·  IRA Contribution
	·  Job Expense
	·  Local Income
	·  Medicare
	·  Miscellaneous
	·  Other
	·  Property
	·  Social Security
	·  State Income Tax
Transfers	Create a subcategory for Transfers
Travel	Create a subcategory for Travel
Utilities Electricity	Create a subcategory for Utilities Electricity
Utilities Gas	Create a subcategory for Utilities Gas
Utilities	Create a subcategory for Utilities
	·  Cable/DigitalTV
	·  Cellular
	·  Garbage/Recycle
	·  Gas/Electricity
	·  Internet Service
	·  Miscellaneous
	·  Public Transportation
	·  Telephone
	·  Water/Garbage
Vacation	Create a subcategory for Vacation
	·  Air/Train/Bus
	·  Auto/Taxi
	·  Lodging